Does Globalization Promote or Denote Global Health?
Globalization is the increased interconnectedness, interdependence, and integration of
societies and countries around the world in various aspects including culture, technology,
politics, and economics. Waters (2013) posited that globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon
that is accelerated by advancements in communication, transportation, and information
technology. According to Teo (2023), globalization has both positive and negative consequences
with advantages culminating from economic growth and transfer of knowledge and technology
while challenges arise from income inequality, exploitation of labor, environmental degradation,
and cultural homogenization. These effects have considerable effects on population health with
its overall effect being multifaceted and complex.
Globalization has led to increased access to medical knowledge, technology, and
healthcare services in many parts of the world. According to Sivakumar et al. (2020), access to
healthcare is a fundamental aspect of human well-being and a crucial determinant of population
health. In the era of globalization, advancements in communication, technology, and
international cooperation have led to significant improvements in access to healthcare
worldwide. For instance, globalization has enabled the rapid dissemination of medical
knowledge and technological advancements across borders. Thus, scientific research, clinical
guidelines, and best practices can be easily shared allowing healthcare providers all over the
world to remain updated on the provision of quality care (Graham, 2004) . In addition, online
platforms and telemedicine expanded access to medical expertise enabling remote consultations
and diagnosis in underserved areas. Moreover, the advancements in international trade and
production networks improve the availability and affordability of medications especially in low-
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income countries (Viswanath & Kreuter, 2007) . Global collaborations in research and
development advance the manufacture of generic medicine increasing the affordability of
healthcare through cost-effective treatments for various diseases including Malaria and
tuberculosis. Notably, globalization fosters international collaboration in healthcare promoting
the exchange of expertise, resources, and healthcare provision practices (Waters, 2013) .
Consequently, countries come together to tackle global health challenges and develop common
strategies for global epidemics such as Covid-19. Other global collaborative efforts include the
Global Polio Eradication Initiative and the Global Vaccine Alliance which resulted in significant
progress in disease prevention and control.
Moreover, globalization contributed to economic growth and development leading to
poverty reduction in many countries which enhanced global healthcare (Teo, 2023) . In addition,
globalization facilitated the mobilization of humanitarian and volunteer efforts in healthcare
through initiatives by non-governmental organizations, medical professionals, and volunteers
traveling to low-income communities to advance health initiatives or to regions affected by
health crises and disasters. Healthcare professionals from advanced countries travel to these
areas to provide immediate medical assistance, vaccination, and support (Cookson et al., 2021).
Globalized networks enable the rapid deployment of medical teams and resources aiding in
emergency response and post-disaster recovery. Consequently, healthcare technology
advancements brought about by globalization revolutionize healthcare delivery both in
developed and developing countries. The innovations such as mobile health applications,
wearable devices, and telehealth platforms expand access to healthcare services, particularly in
remote and underserved areas. These innovations and global initiatives bridge the gap between
healthcare providers and patients enabling remote consultations, patient education, and health
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monitoring. Thus, globalization improves global disease surveillance enabling faster detection of
diseases, reporting, and response to disease outbreaks fostering international coordination to
tackle health emergencies and pandemics.
Despite the above positive aspects, challenges persist in achieving equitable access to
healthcare in a globalized world. Health inequities between and within countries persist with
marginalized populations often facing barriers to accessing quality healthcare (Cookson et al.,
2021). Consequently, socioeconomic factors, inadequate infrastructure, and disparities in
healthcare hinder healthcare progress. According to Hassan et al. (2022), globalization has not
benefited all populations equally leading to widening economic disparities between and within
countries. While certain regions experience economic growth and improved access to healthcare,
others face persistent poverty and limited access. The unequal distribution of wealth and
resources hinders access to quality healthcare further exacerbating health inequalities. Wealthier
individuals and nations often have better access to healthcare services, advanced treatments, and
better preventative measures (Graham, 2004) . Moreover, technological advancements have been
more readily accessible to affluent nations and populations leaving disadvantaged regions at a
disadvantage. For instance, expensive medical equipment, advanced diagnostic tools, and
cutting-edge treatments may be limited to high-income regions further advancing disparities in
healthcare outcomes. The technological divide perpetuates health inequalities as marginalized
populations struggle to access life-saving technologies (Viswanath & Kreuter, 2007) . Similarly,
globalization advances the dominance of multinational pharmaceutical and healthcare supply
companies which impacts the access to essential medications. The high cost of drug production
and patent protection can limit the availability and affordability of medicines, especially in low-
income countries. Market-driven approaches by multinational pharmaceutical companies and
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intellectual property rights impede access to life-saving medicines widening health disparities
between different socioeconomic groups.
Poverty and low salaries in low-income countries lead to the migration of healthcare
professionals from low and middle-income countries to wealthier countries made possible by
globalization. The phenomenon leads to brain drain in low and middle-income countries
increasing the shortage of healthcare workforce in these resource-limited regions and hindering
access to quality care. The loss of skilled professionals affects the delivery of healthcare and
diminishes the capacity to address public health challenges further perpetuating health
inequalities. In addition, globalization negatively impacts the environment leading to significant
implications for health inequalities. According to Zang et al. (2021), climate change and
environmental degradation disproportionately affect marginalized communities contributing to
adverse health outcomes. Consequently, pollution disrupted ecosystems, and natural disasters
can lead to increased disease burden, malnutrition, and population displacement further widening
health disparities. Furthermore, globalization facilitates the rapid transmission of infectious
diseases across borders. As demonstrated by the COVID-19 pandemic, increased travel and trade
across nations can lead to the global dissemination of disease pathogens and pose challenges in
disease containment and management of outbreaks due to increased interconnectedness.
In summary, globalization has the potential to promote global health through improved
access to healthcare, increased collaborative efforts, disease surveillance, technological
advancements, and healthcare delivery. However, globalization also poses challenges to health
such as inequalities, disease transmission, health commercialization, and environmental impacts.
Regardless, globalization fosters the contribution efforts to address these challenges and ensure
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that the benefits of globalization are distributed equitably for the improvement of population
health service delivery and the provision of quality care.
The Role of World Health Organization (WHO) In Sustaining Global Health and
Wellbeing
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations
that was established in 1948 with a primary mandate to promote and protect global health (Cueto
et al., 2019). The WHO plays a crucial role in sustaining global health and well-being through a
myriad of responsibilities including setting norms and standards of healthcare, provision of
technical support, coordinating international efforts, and advocating for health equality. The
WHO has been instrumental in developing and implementing international health regulations by
providing frameworks for preventing and responding to public health emergencies concerning
the international community. International health regulations established by WHO provides rules
for surveillance, reporting, and response to disease outbreaks and the facilitation of global efforts
to prevent the spread of diseases (Ruger & Yach, 2009) . Consequently, the WHO sets global
health standards and guidelines in various areas such as disease prevention, treatment, and the
delivery of healthcare. The set standards ensure that healthcare practices and interventions are
evidence-based, effective, and safe advancing population health. Similarly, Clift (2013) posited
that the WHO guides member countries in the formulation of health policies and implementation
of strategies to improve health outcomes.
Moreover, the WHO plays a crucial role in supporting member countries in disease
prevention and control efforts. In this regard, the WHO provides technical guidance, resources,
and expertise for the surveillance, prevention, and management of communicable and non-
communicable diseases (Budreviciute et al., 2020). Initiatives such as the Global Vaccine Action
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and the Global Malaria Program advanced by the WHO facilitate access to vaccines, diagnostics,
and essential medicine. Consequently, the WHO supports its member countries strengthen their
health systems and deliver equitable, quality health services. The organization provides technical
assistance in healthcare-related facets such as healthcare financing, workforce development,
infrastructure improvement, and health information systems. In this regard, the work of WHO
advances universal health coverage initiatives with strategies ensuring that all individuals have
access to essential health services without the limitations of financial hardships (Clift, 2013) . In
addition, the WHO plays a crucial role in the coordination and collaboration of international
responses to health emergencies. The WHO leads and supports efforts to contain disease
outbreaks, provides technical expertise, deploys emergency response teams, and facilitates
resource mobilization. For instance, the organization’s responses to events such as the COVID-
19 pandemic and the Ebola outbreak in West Africa heightened its crucial role in coordinating
global emergency responses. Consequently, in collaboration with member states and other
United Nations agencies, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations, the WHO
addresses global health challenges by fostering partnerships to leverage expertise, knowledge
sharing, and resources for the achievement of common health goals (Budreviciute et al., 2020).
Examples of successful initiatives and collaborations with WHO include the Framework
Convention on Tobacco Control and the Global Polio Eradication Initiative.
Another role of WHO is advocacy and health equity where WHO advocates for health
equity and addresses social determinants of health that contribute to health inequalities (Ruger &
Yach, 2009) . The WHO highlights the importance of addressing factors such as environmental
sustainability, gender equality, poverty, and education for improving health outcomes. In this
regard, the WHO’s Commission on social determinants of Health has been instrumental in
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raising awareness and advocating for policies that address these health determinants.
Consequently, the WHO promotes health through campaigns, policy advocacy, and public
awareness initiatives (Budreviciute et al., 2020). The WHO has led efforts in mental health
promotion, tobacco control, nutrition, and the prevention of non-communicable diseases. Various
campaigns advanced through the Health for All movement advocates for a comprehensive
approach to health that encompasses prevention, promotion, and health delivery. Moreover, the
WHO plays a crucial role in formulating evidence-based policies and guidelines to address
global health challenges (Ruger & Yach, 2009) . The WHO conducts research, collects data, and
assesses health trends to guide a wide range of issues.
Further, the WHO plays a crucial role in promoting health and advocating for policies
that improve health outcomes. In this regard, the WHO raises awareness about key public health
issues through the dissemination of information and education programs (Clift, 2013) . The WHO
advocates for evidence-based policies supporting health promotion initiatives and encourages
behavior change to reduce risk factors and promotes healthy lifestyles. The International Health
Regulations advanced by WHO are legally binding frameworks for countries to detect, respond
to public health concerns and prevent adverse health outcomes (Cueto et al., 2019). Therefore,
the WHO assists the member countries in strengthening their healthcare provision capabilities
they meet the set requirements to promote disease surveillance, risk assessment, and coordinate
response measures. In recognition of the importance of addressing social determinants of health,
the WHO emphasizes health equity in its health initiatives. According to Williams et al. (2008),
the organization promotes interventions to reduce health inequities by addressing underlying
factors such as poverty, education, housing, and gender inequality. Moreover, the WHO
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advocates for fair distribution of healthcare resources and works to ensure that marginalized
populations have access to essential health services.
According to Cueto et al. (2019), the WHO collects, analyzes, and disseminates health
data to monitor global health trends, track disease outbreaks, and assess the impact of
interventions. The success of the WHO’s health data and information systems depends on the
member states success and hence the organization supports its member countries to strengthen
their information systems and facilitate data-driven decision-making. Through initiatives like the
Global Health Observatory, the WHO provides access to reliable health data, statistics, and
indicators for evidence-based policy development. In addition, the WHO plays a crucial role in
the promotion of ethical standards and human rights in healthcare delivery. Ruger and Yach
(2009) posited that the WHO develops guidelines and recommendations on ethical issues related
to health research, clinical trials, and the use of health technologies. Consequently, the
organization supports the protection of vulnerable populations and advocates for the right to
health, equity, and access to essential healthcare services for all. Finally, the WHO plays a
crucial role in building the capacity of healthcare workers, public health professionals, and health
systems by providing technical guidance, conducting training programs, and developing
educational resources to promote skills and the knowledge of healthcare workers. By
strengthening capacity at the regional and national levels, the World Health Organization
contributed to the sustainable development and improvement of healthcare delivery and public
health outcomes.
10
International Laws Supporting Regional and International Restrictive Strategies
Associated with COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the global economy, global
health, and the overall well-being of the human population. In response to the pandemic
outbreak, nations around the world implemented various measures to control the spread of the
disease. Some of the measures implemented included travel restrictions and national crisis
management programs. These restrictive measures adopted by the global countries are supported
by several international health laws, acts, and concepts that justify their implementation to
protect global public health and well-being.
Among the key legal and conceptual frameworks is the International Health Regulation
(IHR) policies established by the WHO. The international health regulations provide a
framework for the prevention and control of the international spread of diseases (Suthar, et al.,
2018). The framework requires the WHO member states to develop and maintain core capacities
for detecting, assessing, and responding to public health risks including the ability to temporarily
impose measures such as travel restrictions to prevent the spread of diseases. In addition,
international health regulations are designed to enhance global health security by detecting,
responding to, and preventing the international spread of diseases (Adini et al., 2019). The IHR
requires member states to establish and maintain surveillance for detecting and reporting public
health events to ensure the early detection and the advancement of a coordinated international
response. Thus, countries are mandated to facilitate the exchange of information and data
between countries enabling early warning and implementation of practices in disease control. In
addition, the IHR provides a clear set of risk assessment and management measures during
public health emergencies. Based on their assessments, member countries are allowed to
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implement specific response measures including travel restrictions to prevent or limit the
international spread of diseases while minimizing disruption to international travel and trade
(Gostin et al., 2020). However, the WHO monitors the implementation strategies to promote
public health where the international health regulations emphasize the protection of human rights
through the recognition of the importance of respecting individual freedoms and human dignity
when implementing public health measures. In this regard, the IHR requires that the measures
implanted be evidence-based, proportional, non-discriminatory, and in compliance with the
principles of human rights.
Another policy supporting the restrictive measures implemented to control the spread of
COVID-19 is the right to health. The framework recognizes health as a fundamental human right
advanced by various international instruments including the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (Sekalala et al., 2020). The right to health encompasses the right to disease prevention,
treatment, and control of the spread of diseases. Governments must protect the health and well-
being of their populations. The framework on the right to health imposes an obligation on
governments to take necessary measures to prevent and control the spread of diseases. In
addition, the right to health encompasses the right to prevention, treatment, and control of
diseases. Implementing restrictive measures during a pandemic is aimed at preventing the further
spread of diseases which reduces the burden on healthcare systems and ensures the availability of
adequate resources and medical care to populations needing it (Pervou & Mpogiatzidis, 2023) .
Moreover, the right to health recognizes public health as a necessity justifying restrictions on
certain individual freedoms when necessary to promote health.
Consequently, the advancement of population health requires a balance between
individual rights and the collective interest in public health. In this regard, during a public health
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emergency, individual freedoms may need to be temporarily restricted to safeguard the health
and lives of the broader population (Pulejo & Querubín, 2021) . The restriction balances the
crucially of the right to health preventing harm to individuals and ensuring the collective right to
health for all. Furthermore, the right to health emphasizes the principles of solidarity and equity
ensuring that everyone has access to healthcare services and disease prevention measures
(Pervou & Mpogiatzidis, 2023) . The objective of the implementation of restrictive measures
during a pandemic aims to reduce the transmission of diseases and to protect vulnerable
populations who are at a higher risk. Therefore, through restrictive measures, governments can
work towards achieving equitable access to healthcare and protecting the health of all individuals
(Pulejo & Querubín, 2021) . In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and other disease
outbreaks, governments must take necessary measures including restrictions on individual
freedoms to protect public health and fulfill the right to health for their populations. However,
the right to health also mandates the justification of implementation or restrictive measures
ensuring that the measures are necessary, proportionate, and in line with human rights principles.
The measures should be based on scientific evidence, regularly reviewed, and implemented with
safeguards to prevent arbitrary or discriminatory practices, ensuring that individual rights are
protected to the extent possible within the context of public health emergencies.
Further, the World Health Organization possesses the authority to declare a Public Health
Emergency of International Concern under the International Health Regulations (Suthar, et al.,
2018). A public health emergency of international concern is an extraordinary event that
constitutes a public health risk to other states through the international spread of disease and
requires a coordinated international response. The process begins when the WHO receives
information about potential public health emergencies. The WHO composes a committee
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comprising international experts in various fields to assess the availability of data and evidence
to determine the severity, geographical spread, and potential international consequences of the
health event (World Health Organization, 2020). The emergency committee convenes to discuss
the evidence and make recommendations to the director general of WHO and decides whether to
declare a PHEIC. The decision is based on careful consideration of the risks to public health and
the need for a coordinated international response. One a PHEIC is declared, the WHO informs its
member countries and provides guidance and recommendations for response measures (Gostin,
et al., 2020). In this regard, the WHO might issue temporary restrictive recommendations
regarding international travel ad trade to mitigate the spread of the disease. However, the
recommendations are based on the best available scientific evidence and aim to balance public
health protection with minimizing unnecessary disruption to travel and international trade.
Another international health concept warranting regional and international control
mechanisms to prevent the spread of diseases is the precautionary principle. The principle is a
concept of international law that allows preventative action to be taken in the face of uncertain
risks to human health or the environment. The principle is based on the idea that in the face of
uncertainty and incomplete scientific evidence, precautionary measures should be taken to
prevent harm. According to Akins et al (2019), the principal states that when there are threats of
serious or irreversible harm to human health or the environment not supported by full scientific
certainty, precautionary measures should be adopted. The precautionary principle encourages
decision-makers to be proactive in managing risks by taking preventative action before harm
occurs. As a result, the burden of proof shifts from demonstrating absolute certainty to showing
the existence of a potential risk (Meßerschmidt, 2020) . In this regard, precautionary measures are
implemented to prevent or reduce potential harm even if there is uncertainty about the actual
14
magnitude or likelihood of the risk. The precautionary principle is invoked in the context of
public health and environmental protection by recognizing the need to prioritize the prevention
of harm and the promotion of well-being over economic interests when there are potential risks
to human health or the environment (Akins et al., 2019 ). During the decision-making process,
the precautionary principle emphasizes a structured process involving the evaluation of available
evidence, consideration of alternative options, and conducting a risk assessment to determine the
potential harm and the feasibility of precautionary measures (Meßerschmidt, 2020) . The
principle encourages the involvement of stakeholders and experts in the decision-making process
to ensure transparency, accountability, and the incorporation of diverse perspectives.
Moreover, the precautionary principle requires that the implemented precautionary
measures be proportionate to the potential risks and the least restrictive measures necessary be
proportionate to the potential risks and that the least restrictive measures necessary to achieve the
desired level of protection should be implemented (Pulejo & Querubín, 2021) . In this regard, the
decision-makers are required to carefully balance the potential benefits and costs of
precautionary actions, considering the effectiveness, feasibility, and potential impacts of the
measures. Consequently, the precautionary principle is reflected in several international
agreements and declarations concerning the environment and public health (Marr, 2021) . For
instance, the concept is enshrined in the RIO Declaration on Environment and Development
(1992) and is recognized by the World Health Organization in the context of public health.
Incorporating the precautionary principle into international laws and policies encourages
decision-makers to safeguard human health and the environment. The principle serves as a tool
for addressing emerging risks, ensuring that measures are taken to prevent harm and promote
sustainable development in the face of incomplete scientific knowledge (Meßerschmidt, 2020) .
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Governments must protect the health and safety of their populations and are among the critical
decision-makers in the implementation of the precautionary principle. In the context of a
pandemic, the principle allows the government to adopt precautionary measures such as
restricting travel to prevent the potential spread of highly dangerous and contagious diseases.
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